Early transcriptional changes of heavy metal resistance and multiple efflux genes in Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris under copper and heavy metal ion stress.

BACKGROUND: Copper-induced gene expression in Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris (Xcc) is typically evaluated using targeted approaches involving qPCR. The global response to copper stress in Xcc and resistance to metal induced damage is not well understood. However, homologs of heavy metal efflux genes from the related Stenotrophomonas genus are found in Xanthomonas which suggests that metal related efflux may also be present. METHODS AND RESULTS: Gene expression in Xcc strain BrA1 exposed to 0.8 mM CuSO4.5H2O for 15 minutes was captured using RNA-seq analysis. Changes in expression was noted for genes related to general stress responses and oxidoreductases, biofilm formation, protein folding chaperones, heat-shock proteins, membrane lipid profile, multiple drug and efflux (MDR) transporters, and DNA repair were documented. At this timepoint only the cohL (copper homeostasis/tolerance) gene was upregulated as well as a chromosomal czcCBA efflux operon. An additional screen up to 4 hrs using qPCR was conducted using a wider range of heavy metals. Target genes included a cop-containing heavy metal resistance island and putative metal efflux genes. Several efflux pumps, including a copper resistance associated homolog from S. maltophilia, were upregulated under toxic copper stress. However, these pumps were also upregulated in response to other toxic heavy metals. Additionally, the temporal expression of the coh and cop operons was also observed, demonstrating co-expression of tolerance responses and later activation of part of the cop operon. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, initial transcriptional responses focused on combating oxidative stress, mitigating protein damage and potentially increasing resistance to heavy metals and other biocides. A putative copper responsive efflux gene and others which might play a role in broader heavy metal resistance were also identified. Furthermore, the expression patterns of the cop operon in conjunction with other copper responsive genes allowed for a better understanding of the fate of copper ions in Xanthomonas. This work provides useful evidence for further evaluating MDR and other efflux pumps in metal-specific homeostasis and tolerance phenotypes in the Xanthomonas genus. Furthermore, non-canonical copper tolerance and resistance efflux pumps were potentially identified. These findings have implications for interpreting MIC differences among strains with homologous copLAB resistance genes, understanding survival under copper stress, and resistance in disease management.

Xanthomonas immunity proteins protect against the cis-toxic effects of their cognate T4SS effectors.

Many bacteria kill rival species by translocating toxic effectors into target cells. Effectors are often encoded along with cognate immunity proteins that could (i) protect against "friendly-fire" (trans-intoxication) from neighboring sister cells and/or (ii) protect against internal cis-intoxication (suicide). Here, we distinguish between these two mechanisms in the case of the bactericidal Xanthomonas citri Type IV Secretion System (X-T4SS). We use a set of X. citri mutants lacking multiple effector/immunity protein (X-Tfe/X-Tfi) pairs to show that X-Tfis are not absolutely required to protect against trans-intoxication by wild-type cells. Our investigation then focused on the in vivo function of the lysozyme-like effector X-TfeXAC2609 and its cognate immunity protein X-TfiXAC2610. In the absence of X-TfiXAC2610, we observe X-TfeXAC2609-dependent and X-T4SS-independent accumulation of damage in the X. citri cell envelope, cell death, and inhibition of biofilm formation. While immunity proteins in other systems have been shown to protect against attacks by sister cells (trans-intoxication), this is an example of an antibacterial secretion system in which the immunity proteins are dedicated to protecting cells against cis-intoxication.

Analysis of CRISPR-Cas loci distribution in Xanthomonas citri and its possible control by the quorum sensing system.

Xanthomonas is an important genus of plant-associated bacteria that causes significant yield losses of economically important crops worldwide. Different approaches have assessed genetic diversity and evolutionary interrelationships among the Xanthomonas species. However, information from clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPRs) has yet to be explored. In this work, we analyzed the architecture of CRISPR-Cas loci and presented a sequence similarity-based clustering of conserved Cas proteins in different species of Xanthomonas. Although absent in many investigated genomes, Xanthomonas harbors subtype I-C and I-F CRISPR-Cas systems. The most represented species, Xanthomonas citri, presents a great diversity of genome sequences with an uneven distribution of the CRISPR-Cas systems among the subspecies/pathovars. Only X. citri subsp. citri and X. citri pv. punicae have these systems, exclusively of subtype I-C system. Moreover, the most likely targets of the X. citri CRISPR spacers are viruses (phages). At the same time, few are plasmids, indicating that CRISPR/Cas system is possibly a mechanism to control the invasion of foreign DNA. We also showed in X. citri susbp. citri that the cas genes are regulated by the diffusible signal factor, the quorum sensing (QS) signal molecule, according to cell density increases, and under environmental stress like starvation. These results suggest that the regulation of CRISPR-Cas by QS occurs to activate the gene expression only during phage infection or due to environmental stresses, avoiding a possible reduction in fitness. Although more studies are needed, CRISPR-Cas systems may have been selected in the Xanthomonas genus throughout evolution, according to the cost-benefit of protecting against biological threats and fitness maintenance in challenging conditions.

Transcriptome profiling of type VI secretion system core gene tssM mutant of Xanthomonas perforans highlights regulators controlling diverse functions ranging from virulence to metabolism.

IMPORTANCE: T6SS has received attention due to its significance in mediating interorganismal competition through contact-dependent release of effector molecules into prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Reverse-genetic studies have indicated the role of T6SS in virulence in a variety of plant pathogenic bacteria, including the one studied here, Xanthomonas. However, it is not clear whether such effect on virulence is merely due to a shift in the microbiome-mediated protection or if T6SS is involved in a complex virulence regulatory network. In this study, we conducted in vitro transcriptome profiling in minimal medium to decipher the signaling pathways regulated by tssM-i3* in X. perforans AL65. We show that TssM-i3* regulates the expression of a suite of genes associated with virulence and metabolism either directly or indirectly by altering the transcription of several regulators. These findings further expand our knowledge on the intricate molecular circuits regulated by T6SS in phytopathogenic bacteria.

Phosphorylation of AGO1a by MAP kinases is required for miRNA mediated resistance against Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae infection in rice.

Bacterial leaf blight is a devastating disease caused by Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo) which causes severe crop loss in rice. The molecular mechanism that initiates defense against such pathogens remains unexplored. Reports have suggested crucial role of several miRNAs in regulating immune responses in plants. Argonaute (AGO) proteins have been implicated in imparting immunity against pathogens by using small RNAs as guide molecules. Here, we show that phosphorylation of rice AGO1a by MAP kinases is required for miRNA expression regulation during Xoo infection. AGO1a is induced in response to pathogen infection and is under the control of SA signaling pathway. The pathogen responsive MAP kinases MPK3, MPK4 and MPK6, interact with AGO1a in planta and can phosphorylate the protein in vitro. Overexpression of AGO1a extends disease resistance against Xoo in rice and leads to a higher accumulation of miRNAs. Conversely, overexpression of a non phosphorylatable mutant protein aggravates disease susceptibility and remarkably suppresses the miRNA expression levels. At a molecular level, phosphorylation of AGO1a by MAP kinase is required for increased accumulation of miRNAs during pathogen challenge. Taken together, the data suggests that OsAGO1a is a direct phosphorylation target of MAP kinases and this phosphorylation is crucial for its role in imparting disease resistance.

Mutational analysis of predicted active site residues of an exoglucanase secreted by Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae to determine their role in catalysis and in virulence on rice.

Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo) causes bacterial blight disease in rice. As a part of its virulence repertoire, Xoo secretes a cell wall degrading enzyme Cellobiosidase (CbsA), which is a critical virulence factor and also a determinant of tissue specificity. CbsA protein is made up of an N-terminal catalytic domain and a C-terminal fibronectin type III domain. According to the CAZy classification, the catalytic domain of CbsA protein belongs to the glycosyl hydrolase-6 (GH6) family that performs acid-base catalysis. However, the identity of the catalytic acid and the catalytic base of CbsA is not known. Based on the available structural and biochemical data, we identified putative catalytic residues and probed them by site-directed mutagenesis. Intriguingly, the biochemical analysis showed that none of the mutations abolishes the catalytic activity of CbsA, an observation that is contrary to other GH6 family members. All the mutants exhibited altered enzymatic activity and caused significant virulence deficiency in Xoo emphasising the requirement of specific exoglucanase activity of wild-type CbsA for virulence on rice. Our study highlights the need for further studies and the detailed characterisation of bacterial exoglucanases.

XanFur, a novel Fur protein induced by H2O2, positively regulated by the global transcriptional regulator Clp and required for the full virulence of Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae in rice.

IMPORTANCE: Although Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo) has been found to be a bacterial pathogen causing bacterial leaf blight in rice for many years, the molecular mechanisms of the rice-Xoo interaction has not been fully understood. In this study, we found that XanFur of Xoo is a novel ferric uptake regulator (Fur) protein conserved among major pathogenic Xanthomonas species. XanFur is required for the virulence of Xoo in rice, and likely involved in regulating the virulence determinants of Xoo. The expression of xanfur is induced by H2O2, and positively regulated by the global transcriptional regulator Clp. Our results reveal the function and regulation of the novel virulence-related Fur protein XanFur in Xoo, providing new insights into the interaction mechanisms of rice-Xoo.

Plant structural and storage glucans trigger distinct transcriptional responses that modulate the motility of Xanthomonas pathogens.

IMPORTANCE: Pathogenic Xanthomonas bacteria can affect a variety of economically relevant crops causing losses in productivity, limiting commercialization and requiring phytosanitary measures. These plant pathogens exhibit high level of host and tissue specificity through multiple molecular strategies including several secretion systems, effector proteins, and a broad repertoire of carbohydrate-active enzymes (CAZymes). Many of these CAZymes act on the plant cell wall and storage carbohydrates, such as cellulose and starch, releasing products used as nutrients and modulators of transcriptional responses to support host colonization by mechanisms yet poorly understood. Here, we reveal that structural and storage ß-glucans from the plant cell function as spatial markers, providing distinct chemical stimuli that modulate the transition between higher and lower motility states in Xanthomonas citri, a key virulence trait for many bacterial pathogens.

Derivative of cinnamic acid inhibits T3SS of Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae through the HrpG-HrpX regulatory cascade.

Bacterial leaf blight (BLB) caused by Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo) has a significant impact on rice yield and quality worldwide. Traditionally, bactericide application has been commonly used to control this devastating disease. However, the overuse of fungicides has led to a number of problems such as the development of resistance and environmental pollution. Therefore, the development of new methods and approaches for disease control are still urgent. In this paper, a series of cinnamic acid derivatives were designed and synthesized, and three novel T3SS inhibitors A10, A12 and A20 were discovered. Novel T3SS inhibitors A10, A12 and A20 significantly inhibited the hpa1 promoter activity without affecting Xoo growth. Further studies revealed that the title compounds A10, A12 and A20 significantly impaired hypersensitivity in non-host plant tobacco leaves, while applications on rice significantly reduced symptoms of bacterial leaf blight. RT-PCR showed that compound A20 inhibited the expression of T3SS-related genes. In summary, this work exemplifies the potential of the title compound as an inhibitor of T3SS and its efficacy in the control of bacterial leaf blight.

Genotypic variations and interspecific interactions modify gene expression and biofilm formation of Xanthomonas retroflexus.

Multispecies biofilms are important models for studying the evolution of microbial interactions. Co-cultivation of Xanthomonas retroflexus (XR) and Paenibacillus amylolyticus (PA) systemically leads to the appearance of an XR wrinkled mutant (XRW), increasing biofilm production. The nature of this new interaction and the role of each partner remain unclear. We tested the involvement of secreted molecular cues in this interaction by exposing XR and XRW to PA or its supernatant and analysing the response using RNA-seq, colony-forming unit (CFU) estimates, biofilm quantification, and microscopy. Compared to wild type, the mutations in XRW altered its gene expression and increased its CFU number. These changes matched the reported effects for one of the mutated genes: a response regulator part of a two-component system involved in environmental sensing. When XRW was co-cultured with PA or its supernatant, the mutations effects on XRW gene expression were masked, except for genes involved in sedentary lifestyle, being consistent with the higher biofilm production. It appears that the higher biofilm production was the result of the interaction between the genetic context (mutations) and the biotic environment (PA signals). Regulatory genes involved in environmental sensing need to be considered to shed further light on microbial interactions.

A conserved microtubule-binding region in Xanthomonas XopL is indispensable for induced plant cell death reactions.

Pathogenic Xanthomonas bacteria cause disease on more than 400 plant species. These Gram-negative bacteria utilize the type III secretion system to inject type III effector proteins (T3Es) directly into the plant cell cytosol where they can manipulate plant pathways to promote virulence. The host range of a given Xanthomonas species is limited, and T3E repertoires are specialized during interactions with specific plant species. Some effectors, however, are retained across most strains, such as Xanthomonas Outer Protein L (XopL). As an 'ancestral' effector, XopL contributes to the virulence of multiple xanthomonads, infecting diverse plant species. XopL homologs harbor a combination of a leucine-rich-repeat (LRR) domain and an XL-box which has E3 ligase activity. Despite similar domain structure there is evidence to suggest that XopL function has diverged, exemplified by the finding that XopLs expressed in plants often display bacterial species-dependent differences in their sub-cellular localization and plant cell death reactions. We found that XopL from X. euvesicatoria (XopLXe) directly associates with plant microtubules (MTs) and causes strong cell death in agroinfection assays in N. benthamiana. Localization of XopLXe homologs from three additional Xanthomonas species, of diverse infection strategy and plant host, revealed that the distantly related X. campestris pv. campestris harbors a XopL (XopLXcc) that fails to localize to MTs and to cause plant cell death. Comparative sequence analyses of MT-binding XopLs and XopLXcc identified a proline-rich-region (PRR)/α-helical region important for MT localization. Functional analyses of XopLXe truncations and amino acid exchanges within the PRR suggest that MT-localized XopL activity is required for plant cell death reactions. This study exemplifies how the study of a T3E within the context of a genus rather than a single species can shed light on how effector localization is linked to biochemical activity.

Discovery of Novel Pentacyclic Triterpene Acid Amide Derivatives as Excellent Antimicrobial Agents Dependent on Generation of Reactive Oxygen Species.

Developing new agricultural bactericides is a feasible strategy for stopping the increase in the resistance of plant pathogenic bacteria. Some pentacyclic triterpene acid derivatives were elaborately designed and synthesized. In particular, compound A22 exhibited the best antimicrobial activity against Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo) and Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri (Xac) with EC50 values of 3.34 and 3.30 mg L-1, respectively. The antimicrobial mechanism showed that the compound A22 induced excessive production and accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in Xoo cells, leading to a decrease in superoxide dismutase and catalase enzyme activities and an increase in malondialdehyde content. A22 also produced increases in Xoo cell membrane permeability and eventual cell death. In addition, in vivo experiments showed that A22 at 200 mg L-1 exhibited protective activity against rice bacterial blight (50.44%) and citrus canker disease (84.37%). Therefore, this study provides a paradigm for the agricultural application of pentacyclic triterpene acid.

A transcriptional Regulator Gar Regulates the Growth and Virulence of Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae.

Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo) is the causal agent of bacterial blight, one of the most devastating diseases of rice. Pathogenic bacteria possess numerous transcriptional regulators to participate in the regulation of cellular processes. Here, we identified a transcriptional regulator Gar (PXO_RS11965) that is involved in regulating the growth and virulence of Xoo. Notably, the knockout of gar in Xoo enhanced bacterial virulence to the host rice. RNA-sequencing analysis and quantitative ß-glucuronidase (GUS) assay indicated that Gar positively regulates the expression of a σ54 factor rpoN2. Further experiments confirmed that overexpression of rpoN2 restored the phenotypic changes caused by gar deletion. Our research revealed that Gar influences bacterial growth and virulence by positively regulating the expression of rpoN2.

Antagonistic transcriptome profile reveals potential mechanisms of action on Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzicola by the cell-free supernatants of Bacillus velezensis 504, a versatile plant probiotic bacterium.

Bacterial leaf streak (BLS) of rice is a severe disease caused by the bacterial pathogen Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzicola (Xoc) that has gradually become the fourth major disease on rice in some rice-growing regions in southern China. Previously, we isolated a Bacillus velezensis strain 504 that exhibited apparent antagonistic activity against the Xoc wild-type strain RS105, and found that B. velezensis 504 was a potential biocontrol agent for BLS. However, the underlying mechanisms of antagonism and biocontrol are not completely understood. Here we mine the genomic data of B. velezensis 504, and the comparative transcriptomic data of Xoc RS105 treated by the cell-free supernatants (CFSs) of B. velezensis 504 to define differentially expressed genes (DEGs). We show that B. velezensis 504 shares over 89% conserved genes with FZB42 and SQR9, two representative model strains of B. velezensis, but 504 is more closely related to FZB42 than SQR9, as well as B. velezensis 504 possesses the secondary metabolite gene clusters encoding the essential anti-Xoc agents difficidin and bacilysin. We conclude that approximately 77% of Xoc RS105 coding sequences are differentially expressed by the CFSs of B. velezensis 504, which significantly downregulates genes involved in signal transduction, oxidative phosphorylation, transmembrane transport, cell motility, cell division, DNA translation, and five physiological metabolisms, as well as depresses an additional set of virulence-associated genes encoding the type III secretion, type II secretion system, type VI secretion system, type IV pilus, lipopolysaccharides and exopolysaccharides. We also show that B. velezensis 504 is a potential biocontrol agent for bacterial blight of rice exhibiting relative control efficiencies over 70% on two susceptible cultivars, and can efficiently antagonize against some important plant pathogenic fungi including Colletotrichum siamense and C. australisinense that are thought to be the two dominant pathogenic species causing leaf anthracnose of rubber tree in Hainan province of China. B. velezensis 504 also harbors some characteristics of plant growth-promoting rhizobacterium such as secreting protease and siderophore, and stimulating plant growth. This study reveals the potential biocontrol mechanisms of B. velezensis against BLS, and also suggests that B. velezensis 504 is a versatile plant probiotic bacterium.

p-Aminobenzoic acid inhibits the growth of soybean pathogen Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. glycines by altering outer membrane integrity.

BACKGROUND: p-Aminobenzoic acid (pABA) is an environmentally friendly bioactive metabolite synthesized by Lysobacter antibioticus. This compound showed an unusual antifungal mode of action based on cytokinesis inhibition. However, the potential antibacterial properties of pABA remain unexplored. RESULTS: In this study, pABA showed antibacterial activity against Gram-negative bacteria. This metabolite inhibited growth (EC50 = 4.02 mM), and reduced swimming motility, extracellular protease activity, and biofilm formation in the soybean pathogen Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. glycines (Xag). Although pABA was previously reported to inhibit fungal cell division, no apparent effect was observed on Xag cell division genes. Instead, pABA reduced the expression of various membrane integrity-related genes, such as cirA, czcA, czcB, emrE, and tolC. Consistently, scanning electron microscopy observations revealed that pABA caused major alternations in Xag morphology and blocked the formation of bacterial consortiums. In addition, pABA reduced the content and profile of outer membrane proteins and lipopolysaccharides in Xag, which may explain the observed effects. Preventive and curative applications of 10 mM pABA reduced Xag symptoms in soybean plants by 52.1% and 75.2%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The antibacterial properties of pABA were studied for the first time, revealing new insights into its potential application for the management of bacterial pathogens. Although pABA was previously reported to show an antifungal mode of action based on cytokinesis inhibition, this compound inhibited Xag growth by altering the outer membrane's integrity. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

The RLCK subfamily VII-4 controls pattern-triggered immunity and basal resistance to bacterial and fungal pathogens in rice.

Receptor-like cytoplasmic kinases (RLCKs) mediate the intracellular signaling downstream of pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs). Several RLCKs from subfamily VII of rice (Oryza sativa) have important roles in plant immunity, but the role of RLCK VII-4 in pattern-triggered immune (PTI) signaling and resistance to pathogens has not yet been investigated. Here, we generated by multiplex clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated protein 9-mediated genome editing rice sextuple mutant lines where the entire RLCK VII-4 subfamily is inactivated and then analyzed the resulting lines for their response to chitin and flg22 and for their immunity to Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo) and Magnaporthe oryzae. Analysis of the rlckvii-4 mutants revealed that they have an impaired reactive oxygen system burst and reduced defense gene expression in response to flg22 and chitin. This indicates that members of the rice RLCK VII-4 subfamily are required for immune signaling downstream of multiple PRRs. Furthermore, we found that the rice RLCK VII-4 subfamily is important for chitin-induced callose deposition and mitogen-activated protein kinase activation and that it is crucial for basal resistance against Xoo and M. oryzae pathogens. This establishes that the RLCK VII-4 subfamily has critical functions in the regulation of multiple PTI pathways in rice and opens the way for deciphering the precise role of its members in the control of rice PTI.

Transcriptomic and proteomic profiling reveals toxicity and molecular action mechanisms of bioengineered chitosan­iron nanocomposites against Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae.

Bacterial leaf blight (BLB) pathogen, Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo) is the most devastating bacterial pathogen, which jeopardizes the sustainable rice (Oryza sativa L.) production system. The use of antibiotics and conventional pesticides has become ineffective due to increased pathogen resistance and associated ecotoxicological concerns. Thus, the development of effective and sustainable antimicrobial agents for plant disease management is inevitable. Here, we investigated the toxicity and molecular action mechanisms of bioengineered chitosan­iron nanocomposites (BNCs) against Xoo using transcriptomic and proteomic approaches. The transcriptomic and proteomics analyses revealed molecular antibacterial mechanisms of BNCs against Xoo. Transcriptomic data revealed that various processes related to cell membrane biosynthesis, antioxidant stress, DNA damage, flagellar biosynthesis and transcriptional regulator were impaired upon BNCs exposure, which clearly showing the interaction of BNCs to Xoo pathogen. Similarly, proteomic profiling showed that BNCs treatment significantly altered the levels of functional proteins involved in the integral component of the cell membrane, catalase activity, oxidation-reduction process and metabolic process in Xoo, which is consistent with the results of the transcriptomic analysis. Overall, this study suggested that BNCs has great potential to serve as an eco-friendly, sustainable, and non-toxic alternative to traditional agrichemicals to control the BLB disease in rice.

A novel BLUF photoreceptor modulates the Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri-host plant interaction.

Plant-pathogen interaction is influenced by multiple environmental factors, including temperature and light. Recent works have shown that light modulates not only the defense response of plants but also the pathogens virulence. Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri (Xcc) is the bacterium responsible for citrus canker, an important plant disease worldwide. The Xcc genome presents four genes encoding putative photoreceptors: one bacteriophytochrome and three blue light photoreceptors, one LOV and two BLUFs (bluf1: XAC2120 and bluf2: XAC3278). The presence of two BLUFs proteins is an outstanding feature of Xcc. In this work we show that the bluf2 gene is functional. The mutant strain, XccΔbluf2, was constructed demonstrating that BLUF2 regulates swimming-type motility, adhesion to leaves, exopolysaccharide production and biofilm formation, features involved in the Xcc virulence processes. An important aspect during the plant-pathogen interaction is the oxidative response of the host and the consequent reaction of the pathogen. We observed that ROS detoxification is regulated by Xcc bluf2 gene. The phenotypes of disease in orange plants produced by WT and XccΔbluf2 strains were evaluated, observing different phenotypes. Altogether, these results show that BLUF2 negatively regulates virulence during citrus canker. This work constitutes the first report on BLUF-like receptors in plant pathogenic bacteria.

OsWRKY114 Is a Player in Rice Immunity against Fusarium fujikuroi.

Every year, invasive pathogens cause significant damage to crops. Thus, identifying genes conferring broad-spectrum resistance to invading pathogens is critical for plant breeding. We previously demonstrated that OsWRKY114 contributes to rice (Oryza sativa L.) immunity against the bacterial pathovar Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo). However, it is not known whether OsWRKY114 is involved in defense responses to other pathogens. In this study, we revealed that OsWRKY114 enhances innate immunity in rice against the fungal pathogen Fusarium fujikuroi, which is the causal agent of bakanae disease. Transcript levels of various gibberellin-related genes that are required for plant susceptibility to F. fujikuroi were reduced in rice plants overexpressing OsWRKY114. Analysis of disease symptoms revealed increased innate immunity against F. fujikuroi in OsWRKY114-overexpressing rice plants. Moreover, the expression levels of OsJAZ genes, which encode negative regulators of jasmonic acid signaling that confer immunity against F. fujikuroi, were reduced in OsWRKY114-overexpressing rice plants. These results indicate that OsWRKY114 confers broad-spectrum resistance not only to Xoo but also to F. fujikuroi. Our findings provide a basis for developing strategies to mitigate pathogen attack and improve crop resilience to biotic stress.

A Phosphate Uptake System Is Required for Xanthomonas citri pv. glycines Virulence in Soybean.

The genes encoding the phosphate uptake system in Xanthomonas citri pv. glycines 12-2 were previously found to be upregulated when in soybean leaves. This study thus explored the role of the phosphate uptake system on its virulence to soybean. While phoB and pstSCAB mutants were greatly impaired in both inciting disease symptoms and growth in soybean, the virulence and growth in soybean of a phoU mutant was not reduced when compared with the wild-type strain. The expression of phoB and pstSCAB was highly induced in phosphate-deficient media. In addition, the expression of phoB, assessed with a fusion to a promoterless ice nucleation reporter gene, was greatly increased in soybean leaves, confirming that the soybean apoplast is a phosphorus-limited habitat for X. citri pv. glycines. Global gene expression profiles of phoB and phoU mutants of X. citri pv. glycines conducted under phosphate-limitation conditions in vitro, using RNA-seq, revealed that PhoB positively regulated genes involved in signal transduction, the xcs cluster type II secretion system, cell motility, and chemotaxis, while negatively regulating cell wall and membrane biogenesis, DNA replication and recombination and repair, and several genes with unknown function. PhoU also positively regulated the same genes involved in cell motility and chemotaxis. The severity of bacterial pustule disease was decreased in soybean plants grown under high phosphate fertilization conditions, demonstrating that high phosphate availability in soybean plants can affect infection by X. citri pv. glycines by modulation of the expression of phosphate uptake systems. [Formula: see text] Copyright © 2023 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY 4.0 International license.